Tag Archives: causal loop diagramming

Problem Structuring : Methodology in Practice

My new book is now available!

Current perspectives on approaches to problem structuring in operational research and engineering and prospects for problem structuring methods applicable to a wide range of practice.

Despite the myriad successes of Operational Research (OR) in government and industry, critique of its continued relevance to complex, wicked problems led to the emergence and evolution of Soft OR as a more humanist orientation of the discipline centred on a methodological framing of techniques known as Problem Structuring Methods (PSMs). These have enabled OR practitioners to broaden the scope of OR to address complex problem contexts that require transforming, planning and strategising interventions for their clients. The original core PSMs of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM), Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA) and the Strategic Choice Approach (SCA) are presented using a new analytical framework based on constitutive rules, epistemologies, and affordances of the modelling approach. Practical considerations in PSM based interventions are discussed emphasising trust-building, stakeholder identification, facilitation and ethical practice. A wide range of PSM applications are surveyed demonstrating clear intersections with communities of practice grounded in the applied social sciences. The development of a new PSM based on Hierarchical Process Modelling (HPM) of purpose arising from a processual turn in engineering practice offers additional insights for the practice of Soft OR. New developments in PSM practice built on use of Group Support Systems (GSS) and exploiting developments in machine learning are presented. Prospects for bringing the Soft OR project back into better alignment with mainstream OR are discussed in the context of new education programs and a possible processual turn in OR.

Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice contains four linked sections that cover:

  1. Problem formulation when dealing with wicked problems, justification for a methodological approach, the emergence of soft OR, the relevance of pragmatic philosophy to OR practice.  
  2. Traces debates and issues in OR leading to the emergence of soft OR, comparative analysis of PSMs leading to a generic framework for soft OR practice, addressing practical considerations in delivering PSM interventions.
  3. Charts the emergence of a problem structuring sensibility in engineering practice, introduces a new PSM based on hierarchical process modelling (HPM) supported by teaching and case studies, makes the case for a processual turn in engineering practice supported by HPM with relevance to OR practice.
  4. Evaluation of PSM interventions, survey of applications, use of group support systems, new developments supported by machine learning, re-contextualising soft OR practice.

Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice is a thought-provoking and highly valuable resource relevant to all “students of problems.” It is suitable for any UK Level 7 (or equivalent) programme in OR, engineering, or applied social science where a reflective, methodological approach to dealing with wicked problems is an essential requirement for practice.

A PSM Reading List

  • Ackermann, F., & Eden, C. (2011). Making strategy: mapping out strategic success (2nd ed.). Sage: London.
  • Baert, P. (2005). Philosophy of the social sciences : towards pragmatism. Polity: Cambridge.
  • Callon, M., Lascoumes, P., & Barthe, Y. (2009). Acting in an uncertain world : an essay on technicaldemocracy. MIT: Cambridge, Mass.
  • Checkland, P. (1999). Systems thinking, systems practice: Includes a 30-year retrospective. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Checkland, P., & Poulter, J. (2006). Learning for action : a short definitive account of soft systems methodology,and its use for practitioner, teachers and students. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Checkland, P., & Scholes, J. (1999). Soft Systems Methodology in Action: Including a 30-year retrospective. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Conklin, J. (2006). Dialogue mapping : building shared understanding of wicked problems. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Eden, C., Jones, S., & Sims, D. (1983). Messing about in problems : an informal structured approach to their identification and management. Pergamon: Oxford.
  • Friend, J., & Hickling, A. (2005). Planning under pressure : the strategic choice approach (3rd ed.). Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford.
  • Keys, P. (Ed.). (1995). Understanding the process of operational research : collected readings. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Kilgour, D. M., & Eden, C. (Eds.). (2020). Handbook of Group Decision and Negotiation. Springer International Publishing: Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-12051-1
  • Morecroft, J. (2007). Strategic modelling and business dynamics : a feedback systems approach. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Pidd, M. (Ed.). (2004). Systems modelling : theory and practice. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Pidd, M. (2009). Tools for thinking : modelling in management science (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Rosenhead, J. (Ed.). (1989). Rational analysis for a problematic world : problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Rosenhead, J., & Mingers, J. (Eds.). (2001). Rational analysis for a problematic world revisited : problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Salhi, S., & Boylan, J. (Eds.). (2022). The Palgrave Handbook of Operations Research. Palgrave Macmillan Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96935-6.
  • Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. Random House: London.
  • Vennix, J. (1996). Group Model Building: Facilitating Team Learning Using System Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.
  • Yearworth, M. (2024). Problem Structuring : Methodology in Practice. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester.

A short guide to System Dynamics

A short guide to System Dynamics

This guide was produced to help explain System Dynamics modelling to a group of interested stakeholders for a modelling workshop. However, if you have the time I would really recommend reading John Sterman’s textbook for a definitive account:

  • Sterman, J.D. (2000). Business dynamics : systems thinking and modeling for a complex world. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.

Otherwise this short paper summarises the key points

  • Sterman, J.D. (2001). System dynamics modeling: Tools for learning in a complex world. California Management Review, 43(4), pp. 8-25. doi: 10.2307/41166098

And if neither are available, or time is really short, then try this SD-Introduction-MY-20200527.pdf from me.

A Systems Reading List

I often get asked to recommend books on systems thinking, systemic problem structuring, and systems modelling – from general introductions to specialist texts. In this update I have reduced the list to a more manageable length and split it into two parts – essential and further reading. Note that I recommend the 1999 versions of ‘Systems thinking, systems practice‘ and ‘Soft Systems Methodology in Action’ since they both include Checkland’s excellent reflections on 30-years’ of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). If you are learning about and using SSM then I think you also need to know something about Strategic Options Development and Analysis (SODA)/JourneyMaking and the Strategic Choice Approach (SCA).

Essential Reading

  • Ackermann, F., & Eden, C. (2011). Making strategy : mapping out strategic success (2nd ed) London: Sage.
  • Beer, S. (1985). Diagnosing the system. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Checkland, P. (1999). Systems thinking, systems practice: Including a 30-year retrospective. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Checkland, P., & Poulter, J. (2006). Learning for action : a short definitive account of soft systems methodology, and its use for practitioner, teachers and students. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Checkland, P., & Scholes, J. (1999). Soft Systems Methodology in Action: Including a 30-year retrospective. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Jackson, M.C. (2019). Critical Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Midgley, G. (2000). Systemic intervention : philosophy, methodology, and practice. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
  • Mingers, J., & Rosenhead, J. (eds) (2001). Rational analysis for a problematic world revisited : problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict (2nd ed). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Pidd, M. (2004). Systems modelling : theory and practice. Chichester: Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Pidd, M. (2010). Tools for thinking : modelling in management science (3rd ed). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Sterman, J.D. (2000). Business dynamics : systems thinking and modeling for a complex world. Boston, Mass.: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
  • Vennix, J. (1996). Group Model Building: Facilitating Team Learning Using System Dynamics. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Further Reading

  • Ackoff, R.L., & Emery, F.E. (1972). On purposeful systems. London: Tavistock Publications.
  • Coyle, R.G. (2004). Practical strategy : structured tools and techniques. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
  • Friend, J.K., & Hickling, A. (2005). Planning under pressure: the strategic choice approach (3rd ed). Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
  • Jackson, M.C. (2003). Systems thinking: creative holism for managers. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
  • Midgley, G., & Ochoa-Arias, A. (2004). Community operational research : OR and systems thinking for community development. New York ; London: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
  • Morecroft, J.D.W. (2007). Strategic modelling and business dynamics : a feedback systems approach. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley
  • Ramage, M., & Shipp, K. (2009). Systems Thinkers. London: Springer.
  • Richardson, G.P. (1991). Feedback thought in social science and systems theory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Senge, P.M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. London: Random House.

Systems modelling in engineering

Systems modelling in engineering

The wider and more pervasive use of appropriate systems modelling techniques would have a beneficial impact on the way in which engineers deal with messy socio-technical problems. This class of problems is commonly defined by the following characteristics; i) difficulty on agreeing the problem, project objectives, or what constitutes success, ii) situations involving many interested parties with different worldviews, iii) many uncertainties and lack of reliable (or any) data, and iv) working across the boundary between human activity systems and engineered artefacts. All systems models attempt to conceptualise, via appropriate abstraction and specialised semantics, the behaviour of complex systems through the notion of interdependent system elements combining and interacting to account for the emergent behavioural phenomena we observe in the world.

Engineers have developed a multitude of approaches to systems modelling such as Causal Loop Diagrams (CLDs) and System Dynamics (SD), Discrete Event Modelling (DEM), Agent Based Modelling and simulation (ABM), and Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) and these are all included in my programme of research.   However, despite their extensive use, there still exists a number of research challenges that must be addressed for these systems modelling approaches to be more widely adopted in engineering practice as essential tools for dealing with messy problems. These systems modelling approaches as used in current engineering practice provide little or no account of how the process of modelling relates to the process of intervention (if any). This is in part due to the wider challenge to address the poor awareness and uptake of Problem Structuring Methods (PSMs) in engineering, the current inadequate way of integrating these more engineering-focussed systems modelling approaches into PSMs, and lack of understanding in how to deploy them appropriately in addressing messy problems in specific contexts. There is also the need to interpret the current state of the social-theoretic underpinning to systems modelling into a form that is appropriate for use in engineering. This need arises from the endemic atheoretical pragmatism that exists in engineering practice. The lack of methodology supported by suitable theory to counter this i) hinders the development of understanding why methods work or not, and also what it means for them to work, ii) acts as a barrier to communication between practitioners and disciplines, and iii) has ethical consequences, as pragmatic use of methods raises the problem of instrumentalism.

Addressing this methodological challenge is currently a central core of my work. I believe this research is transformational in that it integrates academically disparate areas of expertise in engineering, management, and social science, into a coherent articulation of systems modelling for engineers.